Category: History

The “Babylonian Captivity” of the papacy began in 1309, when Pope Clement V moved the papal court from Rome to Avignon. Political conflict in Rome and pressure from the French monarchy influenced the move, but it made the pope appear too closely tied to France (Rollo-Koster 2023). The Palace of the Popes in the image above also shows how wealthy and politically powerful the papacy became during this period.

“I am now living in France, in the Babylon of the West.”
—Francesco Petrarch

Many Christians believed this wealth ran counter to the Church’s spiritual purpose. Petrarch called Avignon the “Babylon of the West” and criticized Church leaders for their gold, luxury, and expensive lifestyles instead of following the humble example of Christ’s apostles (Petrarch 1907).

The Western Schism began after the papacy returned to Rome. Following a disputed election, one pope ruled from Rome while another established his court in Avignon. European rulers chose sides largely based on political interests, and a failed attempt to resolve the conflict ultimately led to the creation of a third pope. The Council of Constance finally reunited the Church under Pope Martin V in 1417 (Rollo-Koster 2023).

Václav Brožík’s 1883 painting shows the reformer Jan Hus appearing before the Council of Constance. The council helped end the Western Schism, but it also condemned Hus for challenging Church authority.

This crisis was different from the Great Schism of 1054, which divided the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches because of political, cultural, theological, and leadership disputes (TheoEngage-Christianity 2022).  I think both schisms show what can happen when religious authority becomes mixed with politics and personal power. The lasting consequence was weakened trust, a problem institutions still face today when their leaders seem more concerned with influence than service.

Sources

Brožík, Václav. Master Jan Hus before the Council of Constance. 1883. Oil on canvas. Photograph by W. Rebel. Wikimedia Commons. Link

Petrarch, Francesco. “Petrarch on the Papal Court at Avignon.” In Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European History, vol. 3, no. 6, 27–28. Philadelphia: Department of History, University of Pennsylvania, 1907.

“Palace of the Popes, Avignon, France.” Photograph provided in course materials.

Rollo-Koster, Joëlle. “Why Were There Three Popes at the Same Time?” TED-Ed. YouTube video, May 11, 2023. Link

TheoEngage-Christianity. “The Great Schism of 1054: How the Church Became Divided.” YouTube video, January 7, 2022. Link

Emperor Justinian the Great had an enormous impact on Western civilization, although his legacy includes both major achievements and costly failures. From Constantinople, formerly Byzantium, Justinian attempted to rebuild the old Roman Empire by reconquering North Africa, parts of Spain, and most of Italy. These victories briefly restored Roman control in the western Mediterranean, but the wars were expensive and left some regions damaged and difficult to defend (5 Minutes, 2022).

“Justinian attempted to restore Roman territory, but his most lasting influence may be found in law and architecture”

(5 Minutes 2022; TRT World 2020)

Constantinople was one of the Eastern Empire’s greatest strengths. Positioned between Europe and Asia near the Bosphorus Strait, the city became an important center for trade, government, and cultural exchange. Its strong defensive position also helped the Byzantine Empire survive long after the western Roman Empire collapsed.

Arguably, Justinian’s most lasting political achievement was the Justinian Code, which organized Roman laws into a more consistent legal system. This code influenced legal traditions throughout medieval Europe and remains part of the foundation of modern civil law (5 Minutes, 2022). His wife, Theodora, also influenced government policies, including reforms that provided greater protection for women.

Architecturally, Justinian’s greatest accomplishment was the Hagia Sophia. Completed in 537, its enormous dome, marble interior, and detailed mosaics demonstrated the empire’s wealth and engineering skill. It remained the world’s largest church for nearly one thousand years (TRT World, 2020).

Overall, I believe Justinian strengthened Western civilization through law, architecture, and the preservation of Roman traditions. However, his military ambitions placed tremendous financial pressure on the empire.

Sources

5 Minutes. “Brief History of the Byzantine Empire.” YouTube video, January 15, 2022. Link

Droysen, Gustav, and Richard Andrée. 1886. “Europe at the Death of Justinian I in 565.” Revised by G. Kossina. Wikimedia Commons. Link

Fossati, Gaspare. 1852. “View of the Central Nave of Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, from the North Nave.” Wikimedia Commons. Link

Milošević, Petar. 2015. “Mosaic of Theodora—Basilica San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy.” Wikimedia Commons. Link

TRT World. “Hagia Sophia: Through the Ages.” YouTube video, July 10, 2020. Link

Visiting Rome last year helped me understand why the Roman Empire still influences the modern world. Seeing the Pantheon, Colosseum, and other ancient remains made Roman engineering feel much more impressive than simply reading about it. The Romans built roads, aqueducts, arches, domes, sewers, and public buildings, which connected their enormous empire. Their 50,000-mile road system also helped move soldiers, trade, religions, and ideas across Roman territory (Ancient Rome 101, 2018). 

One of Rome’s greatest strengths was its willingness to borrow from other cultures. As discussed in Chapters 5 and 6, the Romans adopted religious practices and customs from the Etruscans and modeled much of their art and architecture on Greek art and architecture (Cole and Symes, 2020, Chs. 5–6). Rome also created important civic spaces. The Forum served as a center for government, business, religious ceremonies, and public leisure. Augustus later used monuments, coins, and public building projects to present himself as Rome’s restorer while strengthening imperial authority.

Roman law was another major achievement. The Twelve Tables placed laws on public display, giving plebeians some protection from patrician control. However, like Hammurabi’s Code, the laws reflected inequality. They included harsh debt penalties, restrictions on marriage between social classes, and valuing injuries to enslaved people less than those to free citizens (The Laws of the Twelve Tables, c. 450 BCE).

Rome’s military expansion brought stability and cultural sharing, but also slavery, destruction, and exploitation. Even the Colosseum represents both engineering brilliance and violence as entertainment. Rome remains relevant because societies continue to struggle with law, political power, inequality, citizenship, and religious change.

#AncientRome #RomanLegacy #HistoryIsAwesome

Sources

National Geographic. 2018. Ancient Rome 101. YouTube. Link

Thatcher, Oliver J., ed. 1907. The Laws of the Twelve Tables (c. 450 BCE). In The Library of Original Sources, Volume III: The Roman World, 9–11. 

Cole, Joshua, and Carol Symes. 2020. Western Civilizations: Their History & Their Culture, Sixth Brief Edition, Volume 1. W. W. Norton & Company.

World History Encyclopedia. 2020. What Is the Legacy of Ancient Rome? YouTube. Link